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1-7 of 7
Carol W. Niman
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Journal Articles
The American Journal of Occupational Therapy, 1986, Vol. 40(4), 265–270.
Published: 01 April 1986
Abstract
Normative data on skills of the tongue used in eating are presented. Normal children 2 to 5 years old were studied regarding their preference of placing food either on the right or left side when eating, and they were compared with age-matched Down’s syndrome children. In addition, the ability to move food from the right to the left side of the mouth was studied. Normal children underwent a transition from predominantly placing food on the right side at 2 years of age to predominantly placing it on the left side at 4 years of age. Among Down’s syndrome children females preferred the right side, and males preferred the left side. The ability to move food from right to left (lateralizing) undergoes a developmental progression from tilting the head to rolling, followed by slow and eventually by smooth movement from one side to the other. Only 15% of the 5-year-olds were able to move food smoothly from side to side. These data provide a baseline against which children with eating problems can be compared.
Journal Articles
The American Journal of Occupational Therapy, 1986, Vol. 40(3), 180–185.
Published: 01 March 1986
Abstract
In this study, tongue movements of normal 2-, 3-, and 4-year-old children were measured and compared. The 4-year-olds were also compared with 4-year-old children in a previous study (Schwartz J: Observation of Tongue and Jaw Movement in Normal Four- and Five-Year-Old Children, master’s thesis. Washington University, School of Occupational Therapy, St. Louis, MO, 1982). Measures were taken on 56 children: 17 two-year-olds (8 females, 9 males), 19 three-year-olds (10 females, 9 males), and 20 four-year-olds (10 females, 10 males). Two different tongue positions were quantified: First, the position of the tongue as the food was presented to the child at the moment when the food was 5 cm away from the lips and second, the position of the tongue as the food was swallowed. Younger children held their tongues in a more forward position when the food was presented, although the predominant tongue position was behind the teeth in all three age groups. During swallowing there was also a progression, as age increased, from pursing the lips to puckering at the corners of the mouth. Many children kept their mouth open during swallowing. These results provide further normative data for the assessment of eating-impaired children.
Journal Articles
The American Journal of Occupational Therapy, 1986, Vol. 40(1), 40–43.
Published: 01 January 1986
Abstract
Chewing movements of normal 2-, 3-, and 4-year-old children were measured. Chewing movements of 2- and 3-year-olds were compared with those of 4- and 5-year-olds. Measures were taken on 56 children: 17 were 2 years old (8 female, 9 male); 19 were 3 years old (10 female, 9 male); and 20 were 4 years old (10 female and 10 male). Data of twenty 5-year-olds (10 males, 10 females) were taken from a previous study (9). Chewing movements were measured by time (seconds), number of cycles, and a time/cycle ratio. A chewing cycle was defined as an upward and downward movement of the chin. Total time from the moment food was placed in the mouth until the final swallow occurred was divided by the number of cycles counted for the same period. The type of food eaten affected time, cycles, and the time/cycle ratio, but age and sex did not. A comparison of younger (2- and 3-year-olds) and older children (4- and 5-year-olds) showed significant time differences. During maturation, time was shortened. It was shown earlier that under pathologic conditions (Down’s syndrome) time was prolonged. Thus, the time/cycle ratio is an excellent indicator of the developmental status of a child.
Journal Articles
The American Journal of Occupational Therapy, 1984, Vol. 38(10), 666–670.
Published: 01 October 1984
Abstract
Chewing movements of Down’s syndrome children were measured and compared with those of normal preschool children. Twenty-six Down’s syndrome children were monitored: 14 were 4 (8 males, 6 females) and 12 were 5 years old (6 males, 6 females). Chewing movements were measured by time (in seconds), number of cycles, and a time/cycle ratio. A chewing cycle was defined as an upward and downward movement of the chin. The time/cycle ratio is the total time, from the moment food was placed in the mouth until the final swallow occurred, divided by the number of cycles counted for the same period. The childrens’ ages and gender did not affect time, cycles, or the time/cycle ratio. However, the measures were strongly affected by the type of food eaten. Children with Down’s syndrome chew at a rate comparable to that of normal children. However, the duration of chewing is significantly prolonged per bite of food. This may be attributed to these childrens’ lack of chewing vigor or their inability, at the ages studied, to chew solid foods. Time/cycle ratios are an excellent index to document such differences. How much sensory differences or deficits contribute to these findings is not known.
Journal Articles
The American Journal of Occupational Therapy, 1984, Vol. 38(10), 660–665.
Published: 01 October 1984
Abstract
This study describes tongue movements of 4- and 5-year-old Down’s syndrome children during eating and then compares the movements to those of age-matched normal children. The study is the second in a long-term project to develop a standardized eating assessment for children. Tongue movements were monitored in 26 children: 14 were 4 years ± 2 months (8 males, 6 females) and 12 were 5 years ± 2 months (6 males, 6 females). Two different tongue positions were quantified: 1) as food was presented to the child when the food was 5 cm from the lips; and 2) as food was swallowed. The childrens’ ages and gender along with the type of food affected tongue position on food presentation; however, only the childrens’ ages and gender affected tongue position on swallowing. In general, most tongue positions of Down’s syndrome children were characterized by 1) a forward placement of the tongue in the mouth, and 2) the absence of the maturational changes in normal children of the same age.
Journal Articles
The American Journal of Occupational Therapy, 1984, Vol. 38(3), 171–175.
Published: 01 March 1984
Abstract
Eating movements in the preschool child undergo change between the ages of 2 and 5 years. There is a lack of objective clinical data from normal children against which eating movements of feeding-impaired children can be compared. In this study, chewing movements were measured to complement tongue movements described in an earlier study. The movements were monitored in 40 children: 20 were four years old and 20 were five years old. Each group had ten boys and ten girls. Chewing movements were measured by time (sec), number of cycles, and a time/cycle ratio. A chewing cycle was defined as an upward and downward movement of the chin. Total time from the moment food was placed in the mouth until the final swallow occurred was divided by the number of cycles counted for the same period. Age and sex did not affect time, cycles, or the time/cycle ratio. However, the measures were strongly affected by the type of food eaten. These findings suggest that the texture of food strongly influences both the number of chewing cycles performed and the time used for chewing. The occupational therapist administering eating evaluations to children should carefully choose the foods offered for initial evaluations and use the same food consistently during reevaluations.
Journal Articles
The American Journal of Occupational Therapy, 1984, Vol. 38(2), 87–93.
Published: 01 February 1984
Abstract
This study describes tongue movements of normal preschool children during eating, and is the first phase in a long-term project to develop a standardized eating assessment for children. It is hoped eventually to fill the need for an objective measurement tool in pediatric occupational therapy practice. The movements were monitored in 40 children; 20 were 4 years ± 1 month, and 20 were 5 years ± 1 month. Each group consisted of 10 boys and 10 girls. Two different tongue positions were quantified: First, as food was presented to the child when the food was 5 cm from the lips; and second, as food was swallowed. Tongue position upon food presentation and upon swallowing was affected by age, sex, and type of food. Both responses showed maturational changes from 4 to 5 years. It is proposed that important maturational changes take place between 4 and 5 years of age, but that adult patterns of swallowing are attained later in development.